Article

Percutaneous Treatment of Coronary Chronic Total Occlusions Part 1: Rationale and Outcomes

Register or Login to View PDF Permissions
Permissions× For commercial reprint enquiries please contact Springer Healthcare: ReprintsWarehouse@springernature.com.

For permissions and non-commercial reprint enquiries, please visit Copyright.com to start a request.

For author reprints, please email rob.barclay@radcliffe-group.com.

  • Views: 1373

  • Likes: 0

  • Citations: 1

Average (ratings)
No ratings
Your rating

Abstract

Coronary chronic total occlusions (CTOs) are commonly encountered in patients with coronary artery disease. Compared to patients without coronary CTOs, those with CTO have worse clinical outcomes and lower likelihood of complete coronary revascularisation. Successful CTO percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) can significantly improve angina and improve left ventricular function. Although currently unproven, successful CTO PCI might also reduce the risk for arrhythmic events in patients with ischaemic cardiomyopathy, provide better tolerance of future acute coronary syndrome, and possibly improve survival. Evaluation by a heart team comprised of both interventional and non-interventional cardiologists and cardiac surgeons is important for determining the optimal revascularisation strategy in patients with coronary artery disease and CTOs. Ad hoc CTO PCI is generally not recommended, so as to allow sufficient time for (a) discussion with the patient about the indications, goals, risks, and alternatives to PCI; (b) careful procedural planning; and (c) contrast and radiation exposure minimisation. Use of drug-eluting stents is recommended for CTO PCI, given the lower rates of angiographic restenosis compared to bare metal stents.

Keywords

Percutaneous coronary intervention, chronic total occlusions, outcomes,

Disclosure:Dr Grantham: educational grants from Abbott Vascular, Medtronic, Asahi-Intecc, BridgePoint Medical; speakers bureau, consulting fees and travel support from Abbott Vascular, BridgePoint Medical and Boston Scientific; CTO Scientific Advisory Board Boston Scientific, Banyan medical systems, Vascular solutions, Terumo; founding member of a web-based CTO-PCI education initiative called CTOFundamentals.org. All funds are paid to Saint Luke’s Cardiovascular Consultants or the Saint Luke’s Hospital Foundation. Dr Kandzari: Boston Scientific (advisory board/board member, grants or research support); Abbott Vascular (grants or research support); Micell Technologies (consultant); Medtronic (advisory board/board member, grants or research support); Dr Lombardi: BridgePoint Medical (stock owner or shareholder); BridgePoint Medical (consultant, advisory board/board member; Dr Thompson: employee, Boston Scientific; Dr Werner: speaker for ASAHI Intecc, Abbott Vascular, Biosensors, Terumo; principal investigator of a randomised trial on the benefit of CTO PCI vs medical therapy conducted by the EURO CTO Club sponsored by ASAHI Intecc and Biosensors; Dr Brilakis: consulting/speaker honoraria from St Jude Medical, Terumo, Janssen, Sanofi, Asahi, Abbott Vascular, Boston Scientific; research support from Guerbet; spouse is an employee of Medtronic. Dr Galassi, Dr Moussa and Dr Chambers have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Received:

Accepted:

DOI:https://doi.org/10.15420/icr.2014.9.3.195

Support:The authors would like to thank Ms Sheila Agyeman for her invaluable effort in coordinating the manuscript creation process.

Correspondence Details:Emmanouil Brilakis, VA North Texas Health Care System, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Division of Cardiology (111A), 4500 S. Lancaster Rd, Dallas, TX, US 75216. E: esbrilakis@gmail.com

Copyright Statement:

The copyright in this work belongs to Radcliffe Medical Media. Only articles clearly marked with the CC BY-NC logo are published with the Creative Commons by Attribution Licence. The CC BY-NC option was not available for Radcliffe journals before 1 January 2019. Articles marked ‘Open Access’ but not marked ‘CC BY-NC’ are made freely accessible at the time of publication but are subject to standard copyright law regarding reproduction and distribution. Permission is required for reuse of this content.

Section A
Coronary Chronic Total Occlusions – Prevalence and Pathophysiology
A chronic total occlusion (CTO) is defined as a completely occluded coronary artery with no antegrade flow (thrombolysis in myocardial infarction [TIMI] 0 flow) for at least three months.1 CTOs are present in 15–30 % of patients undergoing coronary angiography.2–5 In a Canadian prospective registry of 14,439 patients undergoing coronary angiography a CTO was present in 18.4 % of all patients with significant coronary artery disease (CAD).2 Approximately 1/3–1/26,7 of patients undergoing CTO percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) have had a prior acute myocardial infarction (MI). This suggests acute onset of the occlusion, whereas in the remaining patients gradual development of CTO from high-grade lesions likely occurred.

The basic histopathologic feature of a CTO is a proximal cap of the occlusion. This is often fibrotic or calcified and may provide considerable resistance to wire advancement during CTO PCI. Distal to the proximal cap and along the occlusion length follows a segment of loose fibrous tissue or organised thrombus, with various extent of calcification.8,9 In several of these lesions, residual channels may be observed that are not visible under angiography. In addition, microchannels may appear during the CTO’s consolidation process, however these are mostly located in the adventitia with extremely tortuous courses and do not generally traverse the entire occluded segment.10 A recent autopsy study of 95 CTO lesions from 82 patients reported frequent negative remodelling of the CTO body (more frequent with longer duration of the occlusion), very rare presence of microchannels and more frequent tapering of the distal cap as compared with the proximal cap (79 % vs. 50 %, P<0.0001).11 Rentrop and Werner Classification of Coronary Collateral Circulation
Download original

Collaterals are interarterial connections that provide blood flow to a vascular territory whose original supply vessel is obstructed. Thus, the integrity of the myocardium supplied by the obstructed vessel may be preserved, or to a certain degree impaired, but would not become necrotic. Collaterals develop through arteriogenesis, i.e. the recruitment of preformed and preexisting interarterial connections, which is driven mainly by shear forces along the pressure gradient that develops when the native vessel is occluded.12 The functional assessment of collaterals revealed that, in patients without well-developed preexisting collateral connections, collaterals require between 2–12 weeks to fully develop their functional capacity.13 The collateral supply provides a perfusion pressure in the range of 30–40 mm Hg at the occluded territory, a pressure that leads to the functional reduction of distal vessel size, which then leads to the underestimation of the vessel dimensions during a recanalization procedure.14

The most widely used angiographic grading system for collaterals (described by Rentrop et al. in 1985) does not actually rate the collaterals themselves but rather their effect in filling the occluded arterial segment15. Recently, a grading of collateral connections was introduced specifically for CTOs, which can help plan the retrograde approach13,16 (see Table 1). Collateral function can develop to a similar functional level in patients with prior MI and large akinetic territories, as in patients with preserved regional function, i.e. viability is not required for collateral development.17

The direct assessment of collateral function shows that the functional competence of collaterals in CTOs is limited, even in patients without a prior Q-wave MI. During a standard stress protocol with systemic infusion of adenosine, the coronary flow velocity and pressure changes distal to an occlusion (after CTO crossing but before stent implantation) were well below the cut-off values for assessing the functional reserve in non-occlusive coronary obstructions, i.e. a fractional flow reserve (FFR) above 0.75. Therefore, even well-developed collaterals do not prevent ischaemia during exercise.18–20

Collaterals will regress once the native artery that was replaced by the collaterals is revascularised.21 This process starts immediately after re-establishing antegrade flow with immediate loss of collateral conductance and lasts for many months after the revascularisation procedure.

Section B
Clinical Presentations and Timing of Intervention
Clinical Presentation
The symptoms attributable to CTOs are no different than those of non-total occlusions. Patients may report characteristic angina or anginal equivalents, including dyspnoea and fatigue. CTO symptoms are by definition chronic and may sometimes be minimised through accommodation and denial.

Stable angina is present in many patients with CTO. Data from the FlowCardia’s approach to chronic total occlusion recanalisation (FACTOR) trial22 suggests that two thirds of the patients referred for the trial (which required symptoms and/or abnormal stress testing) had angina, that significantly impaired their quality of life (QoL). Dyspnoea is the most common anginal equivalent among patients with CTO. Safley et al.23 compared 98 patients with single-vessel CTO with 687 patients undergoing non-CTO PCI and reported similar alleviation in both dyspnoea and angina.

Numerous patients with CTO have been identified after presenting with other culprit lesions (46 % of patients with CTO presented with an acute coronary syndrome (ACS) in the Canadian Multicentre CTO Registry).2 Among patients presenting with ST-segment elevation acute myocardial infarction, approximately 10 % also have a CTO.2 The same study showed that 13 % of the CTO patients were asymptomatic or had minimal angina (Canadian classification angina class 0 and/or 1).2 The decision to revascularise the CTO in these patients depends on the indications discussed in section C. A careful search should be conducted for residual symptoms of myocardial ischaemia such as poor progression in cardiac rehabilitation, activity avoidance, residual dyspnoea, fatigue and angina, as well as residual ischaemic burden.

Timing of CTO-PCI
In most patients CTO-PCI should be performed electively and not ad hoc.24 Separating diagnostic angiography and CTO-PCI allows for a detailed discussion with the patient about the indications, goals, risks, and alternatives (such as medical therapy and coronary artery bypass graft surgery) to PCI.

Risks that are more specific to CTO PCI warrant discussion. These include the risk of radiation injury, perforation, tamponade and donor vessel injury. There is controversy on whether CTO PCI provides clinical benefit to asymptomatic patients, which should be discussed with the patient (section C, part 6).25 Finally, adequate pre-procedural planning, which is critical to maintaining high procedural success, is more challenging when performed on an ad hoc basis. On rare occasions, the clinical situation may force ad hoc CTO PCI. An example would be a patient who presents with an ACS due to a severely degenerated saphenous vein graft (SVG) with no option for embolic protection. Native vessel CTO-PCI might be preferable and required if the patient cannot be stabilised with medical therapy.26

Section C
Outcomes after CTO Interventions
CTO PCI can improve angina and left ventricular (LV) function. Although registry data are promising, the potential role of CTO PCI to decrease the risk for ventricular arrhythmias, improve tolerance of subsequent ACS and improve survival has not yet been demonstrated.

Angina
In a meta-analysis of six observational studies27–32 that evaluated angina post-CTO PCI, patients undergoing successful PCI experienced a significant reduction in recurrent angina during a six-year follow-up compared with patients undergoing unsuccessful PCI (odds ratio, 0.45; 95 % confidence interval, 0.30 to 0.67).33

LV Dysfunction
Left ventricular systolic function has been demonstrated to improve after CTO PCI in patients with baseline LV dysfunction,34–42 while no change in ejection fraction can be expected when the baseline LV function is normal.42 Left ventricular function improvement is dependent on the maintenance of CTO target vessel patency37,38 and on the viability of the perfused myocardial territory,39,40 therefore an assessment of left ventricular viability should be performed in case of left ventricular dysfunction. Theoretically, an improvement in LV function should improve heart failure symptoms, but this has not yet been demonstrated. A magnetic resonance imaging study of 170 consecutive patients with coronary CTO revealed prior myocardial infarction by late gadolinium enhancement in 86 %, a much higher proportion that previously recognised, although only 25 % of patients had Q waves on their electrocardiogram.43

Ventricular Arrhythmias

Ischaemia may predispose to ventricular arrhythmias. Among 162 patients with ischaemic cardiomyopathy who received an implantable cardioverter defibrillator, 44 % had at least one CTO.44 During a median follow-up of 26 months, the presence of CTO was associated with higher ventricular arrhythmia and mortality rates (p<0.01).44 The preventive effect of CTO revascularisation on subsequent arrhythmias remains to be shown.

Tolerance of Future ACS
The presence of a CTO has been associated with worse outcomes in patients presenting with ACS, possibly due to the greater extent of myocardial injury during the initial ACS presentation.45

Among 3,277 patients with acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction treated with primary PCI, the presence of a CTO was an independent predictor for 30-day mortality (hazard ratio (HR), 3.6; 95 % confidence intervals (CI), 2.6–4.7; p<0.01), a stronger predictor than multivessel disease (HR, 1.6; 95 % CI, 1.2–2.2; p=0.01). Among patients who survived at least 30 days, the presence of a CTO (but not multivessel disease without CTO) remained a strong predictor of death (HR, 1.9; 95 % CI, 1.4–2.8, p<0.01).46

Similar results were obtained from the 3,283 patients who participated in the Harmonising outcomes with revascularisation and stents in acute myocardial infarction (HORIZONS-AMI) trial, where 8.6 % had a CTO in a non-infarct-related artery.45 A CTO in a non-infarct-related artery was an independent predictor of both 0- to 30-day mortality (HR 2.88; 95 % CI, 1.41–5.88; p=0.004) and 30-day to three-year mortality (HR 1.98; 95 % CI 1.19–3.29; p=0.009), while multivessel disease without a CTO was associated with higher early (0- to 30-day) (HR 2.20; 95 % CI, 1.00–3.06; p=0.049) but not late (30-days to three years) mortality.45

A similar adverse impact of CTO was observed in patients with ST-segment elevation acute myocardial infarction presenting with cardiogenic shock47 and in a series of patients with non-ST segment elevation acute coronary syndromes.48 A small retrospective study demonstrated better outcomes for patients who underwent successful vs failed CTO PCI after primary PCI for acute ST-segment elevation MI.49 The ongoing Evaluating XIENCE V® and left ventricular function in percutaneous coronary intervention on occlusions after ST-elevation myocardial infarction (EXPLORE) trial is assessing whether PCI of a CTO in a non-infarct-related artery within one week from primary PCI can improve LV dimensions and function.

Survival
There are no published, randomised controlled trials comparing CTO PCI with medical therapy or with surgical revascularisation. However, there are several observational studies that have consistently shown better survival among patients who underwent successful vs failed CTO PCI. In a meta-analysis of 13 observational studies7,27–32,50–55, mortality over a weighted mean follow-up of six years was 14.3 % among 5,056 patients with successful CTO recanalisation compared with 17.5 % among 2,232 patients with failed CTO recanalisation (odds ratio [OR] 0.56; 95 % CI, 0.43–0.72).33 Similar results were observed in two more recent studies56,57 but no difference was observed in a third study.58 In a large, single-centre, retrospective study, a mortality benefit was only observed among patients in whom the CTO target vessel was the left anterior descending artery.59

Completeness of Coronary Revascularisation and Outcomes
Patients with incomplete coronary revascularisation have worse clinical outcomes compared to those with complete revascularisation.60 Research in this area has been hampered by the lack of universal definition of complete revascularisation. Anatomic definitions often require revascularisation of all stenotic vessels whereas functional definitions usually require revascularisation of ischaemic myocardial territories only.61 The presence of a CTO has been one of the major reasons for incomplete revascularisation,62 suggesting (but not proving) that providing complete revascularisation by recanalising the CTOs could improve clinical outcomes.63,64 The presence of moderate or severe ischaemia is associated with worse clinical outcomes in patients with65 or without66–68 a CTO. In a study of 301 patients who underwent myocardial perfusion imaging before and after CTO PCI, a baseline ischaemic burden of >12.5 % was optimal in identifying patients most likely to have a significant decrease in ischaemic burden post-CTO PCI, suggesting that the highest benefit of CTO PCI is more likely to be achieved in patients with significant baseline myocardial ischaemia.69

Ongoing Clinical Trials
To date no randomised-controlled clinical trials of CTO PCI vs medical therapy or coronary artery bypass graft surgery have been reported. Importantly, the Open artery trial (OAT) was not a CTO trial, as it included patients within 30 days from acute myocardial infarction.2 Two clinical trials comparing CTO PCI with optimal medical therapy (OMT) are ongoing.70 The Drug-eluting stent implantation vs optimal medical treatment in patients with chronic total occlusion (DECISIONCTO, http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT01078051) trial is evaluating whether compared to OMT, CTO PCI will reduce the composite endpoint of all cause death, myocardial infarction, stroke and any revascularisation at three years after randomisation. The European study on the utilisation of revascularisation vs optimal medical therapy for the treatment of chronic total coronary occlusions (EURO-CTO) trial (http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01760083) is randomising patients to CTO PCI with biolimus-eluting stent implantation and OMT vs OMT alone and has as primary endpoints the QoL at 12 months and the composite of death or non-fatal myocardial infarction during a follow-up of 36 months. Finally, the Evaluating Xience V and left ventricular function in percutaneous coronary intervention on occlusions after ST-elevation myocardial infarction (EXPLORE) trial (http://www.exploretrial.com/) is randomising 300 patients presenting with ST-segment elevation acute myocardial infarction and a CTO in a non-infarct vessel to either CTO PCI within seven days of presentation or standard medical therapy. The study’s primary endpoint is left ventricular ejection fraction and end-diastolic volume, measured using cardiac magnetic resonance imaging at four months.

Section D
Stent Selection
Clinical Rationale for Drug-eluting Stents in Percutaneous Revascularisation of Coronary Occlusions
The appeal of drug-eluting stents (DES) for improving long-term vessel patency following CTO recanalisation is related not only to the success of DES in other complex lesion morphologies, but also to the clinical inadequacies of bare metal stents in sustaining restenosisfree patency in this particular lesion subset.71 As an example, in the Total occlusion study of Canada 1 (TOSCA-1) trial, rates of restenosis and re-occlusion six months after bare metal stent revascularisation exceeded 50 % and 10 %, respectively.72

The failure to achieve or sustain patency after CTO recanalisation has been associated with an impairment in the regional and global left ventricular systolic function, recurrent angina and target vessel revascularisation, and a greater need for late bypass surgery.73 Therefore, improving long-term, restenosis-free patency in coronary occlusions may have a potentially significant clinical impact.

Contemporary DES Trials in CTO Revascularisation

In the randomised Primary stenting of totally occluded native coronary arteries (PRISON) II trial (N=200), treatment with sirolimus-eluting stents (SES) was associated with statistically significant reductions in angiographic restenosis at six months (in-stent, 36 % versus 7 %, p<0.0001), reocclusion at six months (13 % versus 4 %, p<0.04) and repeat revascularisation at one year (21 % versus 5 %, p<0.0001).74 At five years, the benefit of SES was sustained, demonstrating significant reductions in target lesion revascularisation (TLR, 30 % versus 12 %, p=0.001) and major adverse cardiac events, despite a greater number of cases of definite or probable stent thrombosis (ST).75 Similar clinical and angiographic benefit using first-generation DES has been supported in non-randomised studies.76–84 Among the 200 CTO patients treated with SES in the prospective Approaches to chronic occlusions with sirolimus-eluting stents/total occlusion study of coronary arteries-4 (ACROSS/TOSCA-4) trial, the three-year rate of TLR and ST remained favourable at 10.9 % and 1.0 %, respectively, with no occurrences of ST beyond one year.83 However, stent fracture was associated with higher restenosis rates.

The growing clinical trial experience with DES in CTO revascularisation has also enabled meta-analyses of angiographic and clinical outcomes.85,86 Among 17 studies evaluating SES and/or paclitaxeleluting stents (PES) against bare metal stents in CTO revascularisation, treatment with DES was associated with a significant reduction in angiographic restenosis (odds ratio (OR) 0.15; 95 % CI, 0.08–0.26) and repeat revascularisation (OR 0.13; 95 % CI, 0.06–0.26), with a similar long-term incidence of death, myocardial infarction and ST.85

While these findings further support the safety and efficacy of DES following CTO recanalisation, they also have implications regarding procedural technique. For example, restenosis in the entire treated segment after recanalisation occurs nearly twice as often beyond the stent margins than in-stent. Therefore, DES treatment of the entire segment exposed to pre-dilatation angioplasty may yield greater reductions in restenosis and subsequent TLR than with balloon angioplasty alone or in combination with bare metal stents.83,87 Nevertheless, percutaneous revascularisation of CTOs is routinely associated with more extensive stent placement. As a consequence, it is unclear whether the improvement in restenosis is offset by a potentially higher risk of thrombotic occlusion, by complications associated with stent fracture or by acquired late malapposition.83,88

The question as to whether disparities in angiography and clinical outcome arise in more complex lesion morphologies is an issue of ongoing study and is especially relevant to coronary total occlusions. At present, at least five comparative trials of SES and PES in CTOs have been performed.89 In general, these studies have been limited by their small study populations, which limit statistical comparisons – variability in trial design and limited clinical and angiographic follow-up. The demonstration of differences in clinical outcomes across the individual trials has been less consistent. More recently, the PRISON III trial randomised 300 CTO patients to receive either SES or two different zotarolimus-eluting stents, Endeavor and Resolute, Medtronic CardioVascular (Santa Rosa, CA).90 Compared with SES, the primary endpoint of in-segment late lumen loss at the eight-month angiographic follow-up was significantly higher with Endeavor but similar with Resolute. Given the overall small sample size, the clinical outcomes did not vary statistically according to the DES assignment.

Additional studies have evaluated everolimus-eluting stents (EES) compared with PES,91,92 reporting lower angiographic and clinical restenosis with EES. In the Non-acute coronary occlusIon treated by everolimus eluting stent (CIBELES) randomised trial that compared SES with EES (N=207), the nine-month in-stent late loss (primary endpoint, 0.13 ± 0.69 mm EES versus 0.29 ± 0.60 mm SES, p=0.12) and angiographic restenosis were similar between the stent types.93,94 At 12 months, TLR and ST were numerically, but not significantly, higher among SES-treated patients. In a recent meta-analysis, compared with first-generation DESs, second-generation DESs were associated with lower incidence of death (odds ratio [OR], 0.37; 95 % confidence intervals [CI], 0.15-0.91), target vessel revascularisation (OR, 0.59; 95 % CI, 0.40-0.87), binary angiographic restenosis (OR, 0.68; 95 % CI, 0.46-1.01) and reocclusion (OR, 0.35; 95 % CI, 0.17–0.71), but similar incidence of myocardial infarction (OR, 0.45; 95 % CI, 0.10–1.95) and stent thrombosis (OR, 0.34; 95 % CI, 0.07–1.59).95

Additional studies evaluating EES in CTO revascularisation are forthcoming and include the Angiographic evaluation of the everolimus-eluting stent in chronic total occlusions (ACE CTO, clinicaltrials.gov identifier NCT01012869) and the evaluation of the XIENCE PRIME™ LL and XIENCE Nano™ everolimus eluting coronary stent coronary stents, performance, and technique in chronic total occlusions (EXPERT CTO, NCT01435031).

Section E
Clinical Summary and Recommendations
The aim of revascularisation in CTOs is to improve symptoms and/or prognosis, thus recanalisation attempt of a CTO should be considered in the presence of symptoms or objective evidence of viability/ ischaemia in the territory of the occluded artery.

In the 2011 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association PCI guidelines, CTO PCI carries a class IIA recommendation: “PCI of a CTO in patients with appropriate clinical indications and suitable anatomy is reasonable when performed by operators with appropriate expertise”.96 The 2010 European Society of Cardiology state that “similar to nonchronically occluded vessels, revascularisation of CTO may be considered in the presence of angina or ischaemia related to the corresponding territory”.97 In the 2012 statement on Appropriate Use Criteria for Coronary Revascularisation, coronary revascularisation was given a lower level recommendation compared with patients with 1–2 vessel CAD without a CTO in 5 of 18 assessed clinical scenarios.25 It is the authors’ opinion that the presence of a CTO should not have an impact on the revascularisation decision, as long as appropriate expertise in CTO PCI is locally available.
 

The authors support the following summary statements and specific recommendations regarding indications and performance of CTO PCI:
  1. Compared to patients without coronary CTOs, those with CTO have worse clinical outcomes and lower likelihood of complete coronary revascularisation.
  2. Successful CTO PCI can significantly improve angina and improve left ventricular function. Although currently unproven, successful CTO PCI might also reduce the risk for arrhythmic events in patients with ischaemic cardiomyopathy, provide better tolerance of future acute coronary syndrome and possibly improve survival.
  3. Patients with an ischaemia-causing culprit CTO lesion who either (a) have had prior coronary artery bypass graft surgery and patent left internal mammary graft to the left anterior descending artery or (b) have single vessel coronary artery disease with a right coronary artery CTO are best treated with CTO PCI than with coronary artery bypass graft surgery.
  4. Evaluation by a heart team comprised of both interventional and non-interventional cardiologists and cardiac surgeons is important for determining the optimal revascularisation strategy in patients with coronary artery disease and CTOs.
  5. Ad hoc CTO PCI is generally not recommended, so as to allow sufficient time for (a) discussion with the patient about the indications, goals, risks, and alternatives to PCI; (b) careful procedural planning; and (c) contrast and radiation exposure minimisation.
  6. Use of drug-eluting stents is recommended for CTO PCI, given the lower rates of angiographic restenosis compared to bare metal stents.

References

  1. Di Mario C, Werner GS, Sianos G, et al. European perspective in the recanalisation of Chronic Total Occlusions (CTO): consensus document from the EuroCTO Club. EuroIntervention 2007;3:30–43.
    Crossref | PubMed
  2. Fefer P, Knudtson ML, Cheema AN, et al. Current perspectives on coronary chronic total occlusions: the Canadian Multicenter Chronic Total Occlusions Registry. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012;59:991–7.
     | PubMed
  3. Christofferson RD, Lehmann KG, Martin GV, et al. Effect of chronic total coronary occlusion on treatment strategy. Am J Cardiol 2005;95:1088–91.
    Crossref | PubMed
  4. Kahn JK. Angiographic suitability for catheter revascularization of total coronary occlusions in patients from a community hospital setting. Am Heart J 1993;126:561–4.
    Crossref | PubMed
  5. Jeroudi OM, Alomar ME, Michael TT, et al. Prevalence and management of coronary chronic total occlusions in a tertiary veterans affairs hospital. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2013:published online before print.
    Crossref | PubMed
  6. Galassi AR, Tomasello SD, Reifart N, et al. In-hospital outcomes of percutaneous coronary intervention in patients with chronic total occlusion: insights from the ERCTO (European Registry of Chronic Total Occlusion) registry. EuroIntervention 2011;7:472–9.
    Crossref | PubMed
  7. Suero JA, Marso SP, Jones PG, et al. Procedural outcomes and long-term survival among patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention of a chronic total occlusion in native coronary arteries: a 20-year experience. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;38:409–14.
    Crossref | PubMed
  8. Katsuragawa M, Fujiwara H, Miyamae M, Sasayama S. Histologic studies in percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty for chronic total occlusion: comparison of tapering and abrupt types of occlusion and short and long occluded segments. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993;21:604-11.
    Crossref | PubMed
  9. Srivatsa SS, Edwards WD, Boos CM, et al. Histologic correlates of angiographic chronic total coronary artery occlusions: influence of occlusion duration on neovascular channel patterns and intimal plaque composition. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997;29:955–63.
    Crossref | PubMed
  10. Munce NR, Strauss BH, Qi X, et al. Intravascular and extravascular microvessel formation in chronic total occlusions a micro-CT imaging study. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2010;3:797–805.
    Crossref | PubMed
  11. Sakakura K, Nakano M, Otsuka F, et al. Comparison of pathology of chronic total occlusion with and without coronary artery bypass graft. Eur Heart J 2013.
    Crossref | PubMed
  12. Schaper W, Schaper J. 2004. Arteriogenesis. Norwell, Massachusetts, USA: Kluwer Adademic Publishers.
    Crossref |
  13. Werner GS, Ferrari M, Heinke S, et al. Angiographic assessment of collateral connections in comparison with invasively determined collateral function in chronic coronary occlusions. Circulation 2003;107:1972–7.
    Crossref | PubMed
  14. Galassi AR, Tomasello SD, Crea F, et al. Transient impairment of vasomotion function after successful chronic total occlusion recanalization. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012;59:711–8.
    Crossref | PubMed
  15. Rentrop KP, Cohen M, Blanke H, Phillips RA. Changes in collateral channel filling immediately after controlled coronary artery occlusion by an angioplasty balloon in human subjects. J Am Coll Cardiol 1985;5:587–92.
    Crossref | PubMed
  16. Surmely JF, Katoh O, Tsuchikane E, et al. Coronary septal collaterals as an access for the retrograde approach in the percutaneous treatment of coronary chronic total occlusions. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2007;69:826–32.
    Crossref | PubMed
  17. Heil M, Schaper W. Influence of mechanical, cellular, and molecular factors on collateral artery growth (arteriogenesis). Circ Res 2004;95:449–58.
    Crossref | PubMed
  18. Werner GS, Figulla HR. Direct assessment of coronary steal and associated changes of collateral hemodynamics in chronic total coronary occlusions. Circulation 2002;106:435–40.
    Crossref | PubMed
  19. Werner GS, Fritzenwanger M, Prochnau D, et al. Determinants of coronary steal in chronic total coronary occlusions donor artery, collateral, and microvascular resistance. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006;48:51–8.
    Crossref | PubMed
  20. Sachdeva R, Agrawal M, Flynn SE, et al. The myocardium supplied by a chronic total occlusion is a persistently ischemic zone. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2014 Jan 1;83(1):9–16.
    Crossref | PubMed
  21. Zimarino M, Ausiello A, Contegiacomo G, et al. Rapid decline of collateral circulation increases susceptibility to myocardial ischemia: the trade-off of successful percutaneous recanalization of chronic total occlusions. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006;48:59–65.
    Crossref | PubMed
  22. Grantham JA, Jones PG, Cannon L, Spertus JA. Quantifying the early health status benefits of successful chronic total occlusion recanalization: Results from the FlowCardia’s Approach to Chronic Total Occlusion Recanalization (FACTOR) Trial. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes 2010;3:284–90.
    Crossref | PubMed
  23. Safley DM, Grantham J, Jones PG, Spertus J. Heatlh Status benefits of angioplasty for chronic total occlusions - an analysis from the OPS/PRISM studies. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012;59:E101–E101.
    Crossref |
  24. Blankenship JC, Gigliotti OS, Feldman DN, et al. Ad hoc percutaneous coronary intervention: a consensus statement from the Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2013;81:748–58.
    Crossref | PubMed
  25. Patel MR, Dehmer GJ, Hirshfeld JW, et al. ACCF/SCAI/STS/AATS/AHA/ASNC/HFSA/SCCT 2012 Appropriate use criteria for coronary revascularization focused update: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Appropriate Use Criteria Task Force, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society of Thoracic Surgeons, American Association for Thoracic Surgery, American Heart Association, American Society of Nuclear Cardiology, and the Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012;59:857–81.
    Crossref | PubMed
  26. Brilakis ES, Banerjee S, Lombardi WL. Retrograde recanalization of native coronary artery chronic occlusions via acutely occluded vein grafts. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2010;75:109–13.
    Crossref | PubMed
  27. Angioi M, Danchin N, Juilliere Y, et al. [Is percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty in chronic total coronary occlusion justified? Long term results in a series of 201 patients]. Arch Mal Coeur Vaiss 1995;88:1383–9.
    Crossref | PubMed
  28. Drozd J, Wojcik J, Opalinska E, Zapolski T, Widomska-Czekajska T. Percutaneous angioplasty of chronically occluded coronary arteries: long-term clinical follow-up. Kardiol Pol 2006;64:667– 73; discussion 674.
    | PubMed
  29. Finci L, Meier B, Favre J, et al. Long-term results of successful and failed angioplasty for chronic total coronary arterial occlusion. Am J Cardiol 1990;66:660–2.
    Crossref | PubMed
  30. Ivanhoe RJ, Weintraub WS, Douglas JS Jr, et al. Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty of chronic total occlusions. Primary success, restenosis, and long-term clinical follow-up. Circulation 1992;85:106–15.
    Crossref | PubMed
  31. Olivari Z, Rubartelli P, Piscione F, et al. Immediate results and one-year clinical outcome after percutaneous coronary interventions in chronic total occlusions: data from a multicenter, prospective, observational study (TOAST-GISE). J Am Coll Cardiol 2003;41:1672–8.
    Crossref | PubMed
  32. Warren RJ, Black AJ, Valentine PA, et al. Coronary angioplasty for chronic total occlusion reduces the need for subsequent coronary bypass surgery. Am Heart J 1990;120:270–4.
    Crossref | PubMed
  33. Joyal D, Afilalo J, Rinfret S. Effectiveness of recanalization of chronic total occlusions: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Am Heart J 2010;160:179–87.
    Crossref | PubMed
  34. Melchior JP, Doriot PA, Chatelain P, et al. Improvement of left ventricular contraction and relaxation synchronism after recanalization of chronic total coronary occlusion by angioplasty. J Am Coll Cardiol 1987;9:763–8.
    Crossref | PubMed
  35. Danchin N, Angioi M, Cador R, et al. Effect of late percutaneous angioplastic recanalization of total coronary artery occlusion on left ventricular remodeling, ejection fraction, and regional wall motion. Am J Cardiol 1996;78:729–35.
    Crossref | PubMed
  36. Van Belle E, Blouard P, McFadden EP, et al. Effects of stenting of recent or chronic coronary occlusions on late vessel patency and left ventricular function. Am J Cardiol 1997;80:1150–4.
    Crossref | PubMed
  37. Sirnes PA, Myreng Y, Molstad P, et al. Improvement in left ventricular ejection fraction and wall motion after successful recanalization of chronic coronary occlusions. Eur Heart J 1998;19:273–81.
    Crossref | PubMed
  38. Piscione F, Galasso G, De Luca G, et al. Late reopening of an occluded infarct related artery improves left ventricular function and long term clinical outcome. Heart 2005;91:646–51.
    Crossref | PubMed
  39. Baks T, van Geuns RJ, Duncker DJ, et al. Prediction of left ventricular function after drug-eluting stent implantation for chronic total coronary occlusions. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006;47:721–5.
    Crossref | PubMed
  40. Kirschbaum SW, Baks T, van den Ent M, et al. Evaluation of left ventricular function three years after percutaneous recanalization of chronic total coronary occlusions. Am J Cardiol 2008;101:179–85.
    Crossref | PubMed
  41. Cheng AS, Selvanayagam JB, Jerosch-Herold M, et al. Percutaneous treatment of chronic total coronary occlusions improves regional hyperemic myocardial blood flow and contractility: insights from quantitative cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2008;1:44-53.
    Crossref | PubMed
  42. Werner GS, Surber R, Kuethe F, et al. Collaterals and the recovery of left ventricular function after recanalization of a chronic total coronary occlusion. Am Heart J 2005;149:129–37.
    Crossref | PubMed
  43. Choi JH, Chang SA, Choi JO, et al. Frequency of myocardial infarction and its relationship to angiographic collateral flow in territories supplied by chronically occluded coronary arteries. Circulation 2013;127:703–9.
    Crossref | PubMed
  44. Nombela-Franco L, Mitroi CD, Fernandez-Lozano I, et al. Ventricular arrhythmias among implantable cardioverterdefibrillator recipients for primary prevention: impact of chronic total coronary occlusion (VACTO Primary Study). Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol 2012;5:147–54.
    Crossref | PubMed
  45. Claessen BE, Dangas GD, Weisz G, et al. Prognostic impact of a chronic total occlusion in a non-infarct-related artery in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction: 3-year results from the HORIZONS-AMI trial. Eur Heart J 2012;33:768–75.
    Crossref | PubMed
  46. Claessen BE, van der Schaaf RJ, Verouden NJ, et al. Evaluation of the effect of a concurrent chronic total occlusion on long-term mortality and left ventricular function in patients after primary percutaneous coronary intervention. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2009;2:1128–34.
    Crossref | PubMed
  47. Hoebers LP, Vis MM, Claessen BE, et al. The impact of multivessel disease with and without a co-existing chronic total occlusion on short- and long-term mortality in ST-elevation myocardial infarction patients with and without cardiogenic shock. Eur J Heart Fail 2013;15:425–32.
    Crossref | PubMed
  48. Gierlotka M, Tajstra M, Gasior M, et al. Impact of chronic total occlusion artery on 12-month mortality in patients with non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction treated by percutaneous coronary intervention (from the PL-ACS Registry). Int J Cardiol 2013;168:250–4.
    Crossref | PubMed
  49. Yang ZK, Zhang RY, Hu J, et al. Impact of successful staged revascularization of a chronic total occlusion in the noninfarct- related artery on long-term outcome in patients with acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. Int J Cardiol 2013;165:76–9.
    Crossref | PubMed
  50. Aziz S, Stables RH, Grayson AD, et al. Percutaneous coronary intervention for chronic total occlusions: improved survival for patients with successful revascularization compared to a failed procedure. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2007;70:15–20.
    Crossref | PubMed
  51. Hoye A, van Domburg RT, Sonnenschein K, Serruys PW. Percutaneous coronary intervention for chronic total occlusions: the Thoraxcenter experience 1992–2002. Eur Heart J 2005;26:2630–6.
    Crossref | PubMed
  52. de Labriolle A, Bonello L, Roy P, et al. Comparison of safety, efficacy, and outcome of successful versus unsuccessful percutaneous coronary intervention in “true” chronic total occlusions. Am J Cardiol 2008;102:1175–81.
    Crossref | PubMed
  53. Noguchi T, Miyazaki MS, Morii I, et al. Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty of chronic total occlusions. Determinants of primary success and long-term clinical outcome. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2000;49:258–64.
    Crossref | PubMed
  54. Prasad A, Rihal CS, Lennon RJ, et al. Trends in outcomes after percutaneous coronary intervention for chronic total occlusions: a 25-year experience from the Mayo Clinic. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007;49:1611–8.
    Crossref | PubMed
  55. Valenti R, Migliorini A, Signorini U, et al. Impact of complete revascularization with percutaneous coronary intervention on survival in patients with at least one chronic total occlusion. Eur Heart J 2008;29:2336–42.
    Crossref | PubMed
  56. Jones DA, Weerackody R, Rathod K, et al. Successful recanalization of chronic total occlusions is associated with improved long-term survival. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2012;5:380–8.
    Crossref | PubMed
  57. Mehran R, Claessen BE, Godino C, et al. Long-term outcome of percutaneous coronary intervention for chronic total occlusions. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2011;4:952–61.
    Crossref | PubMed
  58. Jolicoeur EM, Sketch MJ, Wojdyla DM, et al. Percutaneous coronary interventions and cardiovascular outcomes for patients with chronic total occlusions. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2012;79:603–12.
    Crossref | PubMed
  59. Safley DM, House JA, Marso SP, et al. Improvement in survival following successful percutaneous coronary intervention of coronary chronic total occlusions: variability by target vessel. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2008;1:295–302.
    Crossref | PubMed
  60. Garcia S, Sandoval Y, Roukoz H, et al. Outcomes after complete versus incomplete revascularization of patients with multivessel coronary artery disease: a meta-analysis of 89,883 patients enrolled in randomized clinical trials and observational studies. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013;62:1421–31.
    Crossref | PubMed
  61. Gossl M, Faxon DP, Bell MR, et al. Complete versus incomplete revascularization with coronary artery bypass graft or percutaneous intervention in stable coronary artery disease. Circ Cardiovasc Interv 2012;5:597–604.
    Crossref | PubMed
  62. Farooq V, Serruys PW, Garcia-Garcia HM, et al. The negative impact ofi incomplete angiographic revascularization on clinical outcomes and Its association with total occlusions: the SYNTAX (Synergy Between Percutaneous Coronary Intervention with Taxus and Cardiac Surgery) trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013;61:282–94.
    Crossref | PubMed
  63. Hannan EL, Wu C, Walford G, et al. Incomplete revascularization in the era of drug-eluting stents: impact on adverse outcomes. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2009;2:17–25.
    Crossref | PubMed
  64. Genereux P, Palmerini T, Caixeta A, et al. Quantification and impact of untreated coronary artery disease after percutaneous coronary intervention: the residual SYNTAX (Synergy Between PCI with Taxus and Cardiac Surgery) score. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012;59:2165–74.
    Crossref | PubMed
  65. Galassi AR, Werner GS, Tomasello SD, et al. Prognostic value of exercise myocardial scintigraphy in patients with coronary chronic total occlusions. J Interv Cardiol 2010;23:139–48.
    Crossref | PubMed
  66. Hachamovitch R, Rozanski A, Shaw LJ, et al. Impact of ischaemia and scar on the therapeutic benefit derived from myocardial revascularization vs. medical therapy among patients undergoing stress-rest myocardial perfusion scintigraphy. Eur Heart J 2011;32:1012–24.
    Crossref | PubMed
  67. Shaw LJ, Berman DS, Maron DJ, et al. Optimal medical therapy with or without percutaneous coronary intervention to reduce ischemic burden: results from the Clinical Outcomes Utilizing Revascularization and Aggressive Drug Evaluation (COURAGE) trial nuclear substudy. Circulation 2008;117:1283–91.
    Crossref | PubMed
  68. Hachamovitch R, Hayes SW, Friedman JD, et al. Comparison of the short-term survival benefit associated with revascularization compared with medical therapy in patients with no prior coronary artery disease undergoing stress myocardial perfusion single photon emission computed tomography. Circulation 2003;107:2900–7.
    Crossref | PubMed
  69. Safley DM, Koshy S, Grantham JA, et al. Changes in myocardial ischemic burden following percutaneous coronary intervention of chronic total occlusions. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2011;78:337–43.
    Crossref | PubMed
  70. Garcia S, Abdullah S, Banerjee S, Brilakis ES. Chronic total occlusions: patient selection and overview of advanced techniques. Curr Cardiol Rep 2013;15:334.
    Crossref | PubMed
  71. Brilakis ES, Kotsia A, Luna M, et al. The role of drug-eluting stents for the treatment of coronary chronic total occlusions. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther 2013;11:1349–58.
    Crossref | PubMed
  72. Buller CE, Dzavik V, Carere RG, et al. Primary stenting versus balloon angioplasty in occluded coronary arteries: the Total Occlusion Study of Canada (TOSCA). Circulation 1999;100:236–42.
    Crossref | PubMed
  73. Stone GW, Kandzari DE, Mehran R, et al. Percutaneous recanalization of chronically occluded coronary arteries: a consensus document: part I. Circulation 2005;112:2364–72.
    Crossref | PubMed
  74. Suttorp MJ, Laarman GJ, Rahel BM, et al. Primary Stenting of Totally Occluded Native Coronary Arteries II (PRISON II): a randomized comparison of bare metal stent implantation with sirolimus-eluting stent implantation for the treatment of total coronary occlusions. Circulation 2006;114:921–8.
    Crossref | PubMed
  75. Van den Branden BJ, Rahel BM, et al. Five-year clinical outcome after primary stenting of totally occluded native coronary arteries: a randomised comparison of bare metal stent implantation with sirolimus-eluting stent implantation for the treatment of total coronary occlusions (PRISON II study). EuroIntervention 2012;7:1189–96.
    Crossref | PubMed
  76. Ge L, Iakovou I, Cosgrave J, et al. Immediate and mid-term outcomes of sirolimus-eluting stent implantation for chronic total occlusions. Eur Heart J 2005;26:1056–62.
    Crossref | PubMed
  77. Hoye A, Tanabe K, Lemos PA, et al. Significant reduction in restenosis after the use of sirolimus-eluting stents in the treatment of chronic total occlusions. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004;43:1954–8.
    Crossref | PubMed
  78. Werner GS, Krack A, Schwarz G, et al. Prevention of lesion recurrence in chronic total coronary occlusions by paclitaxel-eluting stents. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004;44:2301–6.
    Crossref | PubMed
  79. Nakamura S, Muthusamy TS, Bae JH, et al. Impact of sirolimus-eluting stent on the outcome of patients with chronic total occlusions. Am J Cardiol 2005;95:161–6.
    Crossref | PubMed
  80. Buellesfeld L, Gerckens U, Mueller R, et al. Polymer-based paclitaxel-eluting stent for treatment of chronic total occlusions of native coronaries: results of a Taxus CTO registry. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2005;66:173–7.
    Crossref | PubMed
  81. Abizaid A, Chan C, Lim YT, et al. Twelve-month outcomes with a paclitaxel-eluting stent transitioning from controlled trials to clinical practice (the WISDOM Registry). Am J Cardiol 2006;98:1028–32.
    Crossref | PubMed
  82. Lotan C, Almagor Y, Kuiper K, et al. Sirolimus-eluting stent in chronic total occlusion: the SICTO study. J Interv Cardiol 2006;19:307–12.
    Crossref | PubMed
  83. Kandzari DE, Rao SV, Moses JW, et al. Clinical and angiographic outcomes with sirolimus-eluting stents in total coronary occlusions: the ACROSS/TOSCA-4 (Approaches to Chronic Occlusions With Sirolimus-Eluting Stents/Total Occlusion Study of Coronary Arteries-4) trial. JACC Cardiovasc Interv 2009;2:97–106.
    Crossref | PubMed
  84. Galassi AR, Tomasello SD, Costanzo L, et al. Long-term clinical and angiographic results of Sirolimus-Eluting Stent in Complex Coronary Chronic Total Occlusion Revascularization: the SECTOR registry. J Interv Cardiol 2011;24:426–36.
    Crossref | PubMed
  85. Saeed B, Kandzari DE, Agostoni P, et al. Use of drug-eluting stents for chronic total occlusions: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2011;77:315–32.
    Crossref | PubMed
  86. Colmenarez HJ, Escaned J, Fernandez C, et al. Efficacy and safety of drug-eluting stents in chronic total coronary occlusion recanalization: a systematic review and metaanalysis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010;55:1854–66.
    Crossref | PubMed
  87. Werner GS, Schwarz G, Prochnau D, et al. Paclitaxeleluting stents for the treatment of chronic total coronary occlusions: a strategy of extensive lesion coverage with drug-eluting stents. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2006;67:1–9.
    Crossref | PubMed
  88. Hong MK, Mintz GS, Lee CW, et al. Incidence, mechanism, predictors, and long-term prognosis of late stent malapposition after bare-metal stent implantation. Circulation 2004;109:881–6.
    Crossref | PubMed
  89. Jang JS, Hong MK, Lee CW, et al. Comparison between sirolimus- and Paclitaxel-eluting stents for the treatment of chronic total occlusions. J Invasive Cardiol 2006;18:205–8.
    PubMed
  90. Suttorp MJ, Laarman GJ. A randomized comparison of sirolimus-eluting stent implantation with zotarolimus-eluting stent implantation for the treatment of total coronary occlusions: rationale and design of the PRImary Stenting of Occluded Native coronary arteries III (PRISON III) study. Am Heart J 2007;154:432–5.
    Crossref | PubMed
  91. Valenti R, Vergara R, Migliorini A, et al. Comparison of everolimus-eluting stent with paclitaxel-eluting stent in long chronic total occlusions. Am J Cardiol 2011;107:1768–71.
    Crossref | PubMed
  92. Valenti R, Vergara R, Migliorini A, et al. Predictors of reocclusion after successful drug-eluting stent-supported percutaneous coronary intervention of chronic total occlusion. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013;61:545–50.
    Crossref | PubMed
  93. Moreno R, Garcia E, Teles RC, et al. A randomised comparison between everolimus-eluting stent and sirolimuseluting stent in chronic coronary total occlusions. Rationale and design of the CIBELES (non-acute Coronary occlusion treated by EveroLimus-Eluting Stent) trial. EuroIntervention 2010;6:112–6.
    Crossref | PubMed
  94. Moreno R, Garcia E, Teles R, et al. Randomized comparison of sirolimus-eluting and everolimus-eluting coronary stents in the treatment of total coronary occlusions: results from the chronic coronary occlusion treated by everolimus-eluting stent randomized trial. Circ Cardiovasc Interv 2013;6:21–8.
    Crossref | PubMed
  95. Lanka V, Patel VG, Saeed B, et al. Outcomes With First- Versus Second-Generation Drug-Eluting Stents in Coronary Chronic Total Occlusions (CTOs): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Invasive Cardiol 2014;26:304–10.
    Crossref | PubMed
  96. Levine GN, Bates ER, Blankenship JC, et al. 2011 ACCF/AHA/ SCAI Guideline for Percutaneous Coronary Intervention: executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and the Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2012;79:453–95.
    Crossref | PubMed
  97. Wijns W, Kolh P, Danchin N, et al. Guidelines on myocardial revascularization: The Task Force on Myocardial Revascularization of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS). Eur Heart J 2010;31:2501–55.
    Crossref | PubMed
Previous Volume Article Next Volume Article